Moral Theology of Health Care

Bioethics is a recently coined word. It comes from â€Å"bio† which means life and from â€Å"ethics† which is morality. Bioethics is that branch of Ethics which deals directly with the problems of life and dying, of health and of healing. It focuses attention to the need for a healthier world in accordance with the dictates of reason.As a health care provider, they are face with many ethical issues left and right. These issues sometimes question our integrity as humans with compassion and concern for others. They say that health care providers are sometimes called an accomplice whenever they have done an unlawful thing which is not legal for their chosen profession. Respect for persons, justice, and beneficence, autonomy has been a major workhorse in bioethical analysis over the past several decades.First, let us discuss the respect for persons, justice, beneficence and autonomy. This entails the dignity that we have as human beings. That as human, we have every right to do things and that we should be respected for it. We should respect individuals as well as their lives. As a health care provider, it is our duty to preserve life and not to destroy it. Health care providers often deal with critical situations where human life us at stake, both in the community and in particular health settings. Thus, it is very important that they understand and respect the sanctity of human life. During such situations they may be forced to decide whether or not to perform clinical procedures to preserve health and save the lives of people in a community.Abortion, we all know that Life is precious. It is our main concern and duty. Health is our personal responsibility. This requires that we adopt a style of life that fosters health. We owe it to our family and society to be healthy. The cost of health care is becoming expensive everyday. It is a crime of gross injustice when, because of our reckless habits, we force our family to suffer financial losses and ind ebtedness.But do we really care about the life which God has bestowed in us? Yes, certainly we do but there are some women choose to abort the life that is in them for some irrefutable reasons. Many agree to abortion depends to the circumstances but how about the women who just do not want to have kids? Is it reasonable that they just abort the â€Å"life† because they want to avoid responsibilities? Absolutely, not! Human life is sacred because conception, from the beginning, already involves the creative action of God.As human beings, we remain forever in a special relationship with the Creator. Human life is endowed with majesty and dignity which call forth for an equally dignified response. We owe human life respect and reverence. Such reverence, respect, and concern for life is a way of saying â€Å"yes† to God’s concern for human life in all its forms. In this complex world that we live in today, abortion and contraception are two of the most hotly- debate d issues. They pose a serious moral challenge particularly to medical practitioners and health service providers who are supposed to preserve and protect human life.Thus a thorough understanding of these issues is necessary to arrive at logical and moral solutions. Still the fact remains that neither abortion nor contraception are desirable in human society. Their prevention should be a shared task that rises above the debates on the morality of abortion or contraception. The sanctity of human life demands that it must be respected and protected absolutely from the moment of a conception. From the first moment of her existence, a human being already possesses the rights of a person and that as health care providers we should greatly respect, among which is the inviolable right of every innocent being.This alienable right must be recognized and respected by civil society, political authority and health care professionals. Abortion destroys life and violates the right to life. As such it is morally evil and it should not be in any way legalized and liberally permitted in the laws and constitution of the nation as well as in the ethics of the health care professionals.Euthanasia is one of the most debatable issues of our society today. Many disagree with this practice but others say that it is the only way of ending the agony of the patient. So if this issue is still argued, in what circumstance it becomes right? Euthanasia is the killing, for reasons of mercy, of a person who is suffering from an incurable illness or hopeless injury. Euthanasia is an ancient concept that has in the past been an acceptable practice in certain societies; for example, in ancient Greece. In modern times, however, euthanasia is generally considered murder by the law and also is most of the world’s organized religions.Passive, or negative, euthanasia does not involve the act of killing. It consists of the withdrawal of, or the deliberate failure to initiate, life-sustaining tre atment in hopeless initiate, life-sustaining treatment in hopeless cases. Instead of being kept alive for days or weeks through various kinds of machines and drugs, the patient is simply allowed to die.Moreover, â€Å"euthanasia† derives from the Greek words Eu which means good and Thanatos which means death. It etymologically signifies â€Å"good health,† a pleasant and gentle death without awful suffering. Euthanasia may be defined as an action or omission that by its very nature, or in the intention, causes death, for the purpose of eliminating whatever pain.Furthermore, the issue of death has become more complicated than it is used to be because of ethical conflict. The moral issue of euthanasia revolves around the preservation of human dignity in death even to the individual’s last breath. This issue has both its positive and negative sides.The positive argument states that euthanasia aims to preserve human dignity until death. Not only does one have a duty to preserve life but one also has the right to die with dignity. To die with dignity means that one should be better than to go on living with an incurable and distressing sickness.The negative argument, on the other hand, declares that euthanasia erodes human dignity because it means cowardliness in the face of pain and suffering. People who have faced the realities of life with courage die with dignity.Whereas the positive side insists that mercy killing preserves human dignity, the negative side claims the opposite since the act hastens the death of an individual. Furthermore, others consider euthanasia to be morally wrong because it is intentional killing which opposes the natural moral law or the natural inclination to preserve life. They even argue that euthanasia may be performed for self-interest or other consequences. Also, doctors and other health care professionals may be tempted not to do their best to save the patient. They may resort not to do their best to save the p atient. They may resort to euthanasia as an easy way out and simply disregard any other alternatives.Physician assisted suicide is the type of suicide assisted by a physician. The physician prescribes or administers a drug that could lead the patient to death. One way to distinguish between euthanasia and assisted suicide is to look at the last act, the act by which death occurred.Using this distinction, if a third party performed the last act that intentionally caused a patient’s death, euthanasia occurred. For example, giving a patient a lethal injection or pulling a plastic bag over her head to suffocate her would be considered euthanasia.On the other hand, if the person who died performed the last act, assisted suicide took place. Thus it is assisted suicide if a person swallowed an overdose of drugs provided by a doctor for the purpose of casing death. It is also assisted suicide if a patient pushed a switch to trigger a fatal injection after the doctor inserted an intra venous needle into the patient’s vein. A lot of people think that assisted suicide is needed so patients will not be forced to remain alive by being â€Å"hooked up† to machines. There are laws that permit patients or their surrogates to withhold or withdraw unwanted medical treatment even if that increases the likelihood that the patient will die. Thus, no one needs to be hooked up to machines against his or her will.Neither the law nor the medical ethics requires that â€Å"everything be done† to keep a person alive. Insistence, against the patient’s whishes, that death be postponed by every means available is contrary to law and practice. It is also cruel and inhuman.There comes a time when continued attempts to cure are no longer compassionate, wise or medically wound. On such situations, hospice, including in- home hospice care, can be of great help. That is the time when all efforts should be directed at making the patient’s remaining time co mfortable. Then, all interventions should be directed to the alleviation of pain and other symptoms as well as to the provision of emotional and spiritual support for both the patient and the patient’s loved ones.Medicine is at the service of life. Since the beginning medical practitioners have struggled to conserve health, alleviate suffering and as much as they can, prolong life. Nobody escapes death, as death as inevitable. It is a fearful reality. However, acceptance of death would â€Å"perhaps be easier and more meaningful if one lives life to the fullest and strive to give meaning to his/ her existence.’Today, the span of human life has considerably lengthened than during the past decades, thanks to significant achievements in the medical field. However, life will remain a journey and man will continue his pilgrimage towards his final destiny. Surely, man will reach a point when neither the physician nor modern medicine can do more for him. As one poet states: â€Å"It is sheer madness of a man to cling to his life when God wills that he die.† Nurses play a vital role in a patient’s struggle against illness. Are nurses allowed to cut the thread of life when the weight of pain, suffering and hopelessness has become too heavy for the patient to bear? Can we â€Å"plan† for our death, just as we plan for our future?While health providers strive to render the best care for patients, situations arise when the patients themselves demand for assistance to have their lives ended. During such situations, health care providers and medical practitioners are expected to act morally and justify their stand.Reference:Drane, James F. Clinical Bioethics. Kansas City: Sheed & Ward, 1994. Higgins, Gregory C. Where do you stand? New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1995. Hughes, Gerald J. Authority in Morals. London: Heythrop Monographs, 1978. Kippley, John & Sheila Kippley. The Art of Natural Family Planning. Cincinnati: The Couple of Couple Lea gue International, Inc. 1975..

Run Lola Run Speach

Distinctively visual Images and the ideas conveyed through them can both enhance or challenge our understanding of the world and humanity. Ideas associated with images can be powerfull enough to provoke further thinking and understanding of certain matters. This is greatly evident in the 1998 German thriller film â€Å"Run Lola Run† directed and written by Tom Tykwer together with the poem â€Å"Summer Rain† by John Foulcher. Through the use of strong images these two texts manage to express their main ideas such as chaos and its relationship with time. In â€Å"RLR† we witness the protagonists facing dilemma due to these two aspects of the world, seeking to overcome them with determination and love. Meanwhile â€Å"Summer Rain† shows the unpredictability of these ideas and their destructive power to harm or chip away. In â€Å"RLR† Tykwer made chaos and time two influences against which the protagonist â€Å"Lola† is working due to the conviction of her love for Manni. The composer combines the ideas of chaos and time through the fast paced, rapidly altered camera shots differentiating in angles and lengths. This is prominent during all three of Lola’s twenty minute runs. The camera is set on Lola yet changes its angles and lengths to synchronize with Lola turning corners, avoiding obstacles and the change in location. The Fast paced camera action allows us the audience see Lola’s perception of her progress to save her lover Manni within twenty mins. This constant rapid camera work during the running scenes emphasizes the chaotic atmosphere a common reaction when working against time. The chaotic atmosphere distorts the time and progress in the mind of the audience and Lola. The use of a split screen where Lola is on the left running towards the right, facing in the direction of Manni as well as well as an image of a clock ticking on the bottom avoids this distortion of time in the last crucial minutes. Showing her progress during the last minute enhances the intensity yet gives the audience a much more vivid understanding of the situation, much like when we check our watches when we arrive somewhere late or at the last minute of a given deadline. These distinctive visual features allow the audience to understand Lola’s state of mind in this complication, to which we can partially relate in the modern era. â€Å"The Summer Rain† provides further evidence of the relationship of chaos and time. John Foulcher is explaining about the rush hour traffic which is present at a certain time which will create disorder in someone’s schedule if adaptations are not made. â€Å"At 4 o'clock† cars/† The use of high modality giving us the context of images. The composer introduces us to the setting with the use of time conveying utmost in importance. The visual imagery creates a sense of a disordered environment, â€Å"clutter on the highway like abacus beads† the simile creating a perfect image of the disturbance to the responder. He then addresses the destructive nature of chaos â€Å"Somewhere ahead, there's been an accident/One by one, the engines/stop, the cars slump into dusk. † By using linear narrative, imagery of the turmoil along with rhythmic sentence and personification the poet allows the audience to synchronize with the series of events, which seem happen within seconds. With constant use of visual Imagery the author conveys the idea of and unifies it with time via use of simple rhythmic sentence. Both Composers use distinctively visual techniques as to enhance, convey their ideas and allow the wider audience to connect with the circumstances imposed in on characters in the texts, ‘Run Lola Run’ and â€Å"summer rain† use combination of Visual Techniques together with language devices to subject the to send the idea through to the audience. It is through the use of imagery that we more effectively understand certain ideas that are in relevant to the world and humanity.

International Standardization and Information-Communication Industries Essay

International Standardization and Information-Communication Industries - Essay Example The reasons for this difference in the electronics companies in the United States and Japan can be traced to historical reasons. In Japan during the early 1960s, the Ministry of the Economy, Trade and Industry helped in the formulation of trade agreements wherein each Japanese developer of computer systems was paired with a counterpart in the United States, with the objective being that of ensuring Japan’s participation in the electronic revolution and to enable it to compete with IBM which was then the most important player in the market for computer systems.(Hagiu, 2005). The result of this policy was the development of incompatible systems, with operating systems for each being different depending upon which U.S. partner the Japanese company was working with; even IBM systems were sometimes incompatible with each other. Thus, in order to enhance profitability, the Japanese electronics companies found it more profitable to develop integrated systems, whereby one company manufactured highly customized systems offering free software and upgrades, as well as all the hardware component parts, sourcing distributors and suppliers and integrating them into the network of the company organization itself (Hagiu, 2005). This also resulted in a gradual elimination of the U.S. counterparts. The Japanese market is now characterized so much by specialized development of software and electronic products from vertically integrated companies that it is difficult for medium sized independent developers/companies to flourish because there is very little scope for the development of popular platforms which justifies mass scale production of software. In the United States on the other hand, the monopoly enjoyed by IBM in the 1960s and its vertically integrated structure was affected after an antitrust suit was filed against the Company (Hagiu, 2005). Due to this suit, there was a public hue and cry against monopolization

How convincing do you find Stuart Hall's approach to 'race' Essay

How convincing do you find Stuart Hall's approach to 'race' - Essay Example Therefore, Stuart Hall’s approach to race is totally convincing to me, and it is practical in a number of situations; it provides vast knowledge on race dynamics. Stuart Hall argued about the human culture and the tendency to categorise human beings into subgroups, as well as fragment human society diversity into discrete types with regard to characteristics and qualities, which are deemed essential and are always extremely high. The qualities and characteristics according to which human beings are categorised may include intellectual, body and physical characteristics among others (Smaje, 2000, p.55). This categorisation is a reflective cultural impulse; it gives human beings a chance to understand various meanings in classification. Stuart Hall argued that classification is an extremely fundamental aspect of the culture of human beings (Rex and Mason, 1989, p. 35). Further, the significant aspect of classification to people is when the classification becomes the power dispos ition object. This point is relevant to the extent that marking of the similarities and differences across populations of human beings becomes the reference point for treating one group of people with privileges, which may not be enjoyed by another group of people (Malik, 1996, p. 43). In essence, classification facilitates one group to be treated favorably, and the other group gets subjected to a wide range of discriminations and suffering. This juncture marks the union of classification of human societies and cultures and power and authority. Classification assumes the status of a power system, and this power system is evidenced in a wide range of characteristics, especially in human beings (Smaje, 2000, p.57). For instance, this system of power is evidenced in gender, which ascribes feminine and masculine identities to people in a cultural setting. From these ascriptions, a vast range of opportunities, aspirations and behavior can be predicted from the classifications (Omi and Wi nant, 1994, p. 33). Therefore, classification is an extremely generative term, and the moment an individual is classified into any group or race, many things and aspects assume their position in the life of the individual, as a result of the classification. However, classification has another significant aspect in the life of people; it awakens the minds of people and maintains order and stratification of a system. This order is retained at all times, and anything which disturbs this order is viewed negatively, and people who strive to retain the status quo fight to return the order to its original position (Rex and Mason, 1989, p. 46). Apparently, it becomes clear that classification is not only a division into whites and blacks, but also that one of these groups has more value (positive) than the other group. This is the path always taken by power, and any person who attempts to ascribe white characteristics to blacks generates immense worry in society. In such instances, people e xperience misplaced priority and misappropriated ascription, which is described as â€Å"matter out of place† (Malik, 1996, p. 43). This phrase denotes that all societies and cultures have classification orders, which can be said to be inbuilt and out of the culture (Augstein, 1996, p. 36). This order informs people about their position in a society, their rank, as well as

Summary Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Summary - Case Study Example The main issues that are addressed as far as the issue of insurance is concerned are the aspects of provision of healthcare especially on the emergency department and the provision of emergency services. This research established that up to 40% decline in the emergency department visits as well as a 61% decrease in the inpatient admissions was attributable to the lack of insurance cover. This paper borrows from other research work in order to establish credibility and coherence with the findings from other works. Some of the findings have indicated that up to a quarter of all the young adults in the United States were confronted with lack of health insurance at this stage. The use of healthcare facilities has also been strongly linked with the subscription to medical insurance services. The individuals that have the cover have the highest propensity to consume health services. This means that the unsecured would have adopted a different healthcare scheme if they had a healthcare insurance cover. This paper explores the quasi-experimental status that results to variations in the status of insurance services depending on the strategies that are utilized by the insurers in ensuring that the dependents are eligible for the insurance services. The research to establish these variations was based on records obtained from California, Arizona, Iowa, New Jersey, and Wisconsi n for the emergency department. On the other hand, the records for hospital admission were obtained from hospitals in the above areas plus also Texas. In the attempt to establish the health insurance variations, data was gathered from various centers. This data was mainly obtained from the National Health Interview Survey, the inpatient hospitalization records, and administrative records relating to emergency department records. The obtained data was related to a model in order to demonstrate the relationship between the utilization of care and the provision of health insurance. The model

20 multiple choice questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

20 multiple choice questions - Assignment Example Because this warmer air is less dense, it glides up along the slope and generates a Valley breeze. 11. Thunderstorms are caused by the upward movement of warm, moist, unstable air. They are associated with cumulonimbus clouds that generate heavy rainfall, lightning, thunder, and occasionally hail and tornadoes. 15. Although cP air masses are not normally associated with heavy precipitation, those that cross the Great lakes in late autumn and winter sometimes bring snow to the leeward shores. These are known as lake effect snows, and they make Buffalo and Rochester, New York, among the snowiest cities in the United States. 17. Whereas a tornado watch is designed to alert people to the possibility of tornadoes, a tornado warning is issued by local offices of the National Weather Service when a tornado has actually been sighted in an area or is indicated by weather

Cooperative Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cooperative Strategies - Essay Example http://www.swlearning.com/management/hoskisson/cfa1e/powerpoint/ch10_lecture_light.ppt CA designed to take advantage of market opportunities by combining partner firms' assets in complementary ways to create a new value. These include distribution, supplier or outsourcing alliances where firms rely on upstream or downstream partners to build competitive advantage. It is formed between partners who agree to combine their resources and skills to create value in the same stage of the value chain. Focus is on long-term product development and distribution opportunities. Partners may become competitors and requires a great deal of trust between them. It is used to hedge against risk and uncertainty and it is most noticed in fast-cycle markets. Alliance may be formed to reduce the uncertainty associated with developing new product or technology standards. Allows a firm to expand into new product or market areas without completing a merger or an acquisition, it also provides some of the potential synergistic benefits of a merger or acquisition, but with less risk and greater levels of flexibility. Permits a test of whether a future merger between the partners would benefit both parties. The main purpose of Franchising is to spreads risks and uses resources, capabilities, and competencies without merging or acquiring another company. Contractual relationship concerning the franchise is developed between two parties, the franchisee and the franchisor, an alternative to pursuing growth through mergers and acquisitions. http://academic.cengage.com/resource_uploads/downloads/0324316941_57293.pptDespite of providing benefits to the firms, cooperative strategies can be

Comment 2 Pick a War (View Point Aggresor Research Paper

Comment 2 Pick a War (View Point Aggresor - Research Paper Example However, Bulgaria was sceptical of Greece’s strengths and was concerned that Greece was on the brink of war with the Porte relative to dispute over Crete. In addition, the weaknesses implicit in the Ottomans particularly during the Italo-Turkish War motivated these states to look beyond their own issues with one another. Thus, in 1912 a defensive alliance was signed between Serbia and Bulgaria. Greece followed with a similar alliance with Sofia and Sofia followed by singing a similar agreement with Montenegro. As Hodge puts it, â€Å"Balkan states formed a network of alliances against Constantinople†.5 B. The primary that set off the shooting World powers became concerned about their interests in the region. For example, France was concerned that Russia would gain dominance in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary was particularly concerned about Serbia’s possible expansion since it sat on the southern border. As a result, Austria-Hungary appealed to other European powers to warn Balkan states not to upset the â€Å"balance of power.†6 Nevertheless, the Balkan League was convinced of their power and on 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Four days later, the remaining states in the Balkan League would follow suit.7 Thus, the Balkan League was the aggressor in the Balkan War of 1912. C. Was the war legal when it happened? Would it be today? The applicable international instrument regulating the law of war at the time was the Hague Convention 1907. According to Article 1 of the 1907 Convention, states may not commence hostilities against one another unless an express advance notice is given â€Å"in the form of a declaration.†8 Since the war started with a declaration of war on the part of Montenegro which was followed by declarations by the remaining members of the Balkan League, the war was legal in 1912. However, today, the war would not be legal pursuant to the UN Charter in which various articles insist up on the peaceful settlement of disputes between states, forbid the use of military force and calls for respect of the integrity of sovereignty. The right to use force is only justified in defence of state sovereignty and generally where a threat is eminent.9 D. The Secondary Cause of War The seeds of discord leading to the first Balkan War were planted since the 1800s. At that time a wave of nationalism sweeping France and Germany filtered over into the Balkan Peninsular. Initially, the idea of nationalism in the Balkans centered around a demand for standardizing a Balkan language and thus emphasized a connection to a Balkan culture that predated the Ottomans. In the meantime, the nationalism movement in the Balkans took on a political tone. With nationalism taking on a political tone, there was a â€Å"strong desire to achieve national unity† which â€Å"motivated the Balkan states to confront their erstwhile Ottoman conquerors†.10 There was a common belief among Balka n nationalist movements that in order for the Balkan states to move forward successfully, they needed to be united.

Evaluate PESTEL factors in Beatles store in London Essay

Evaluate PESTEL factors in Beatles store in London - Essay Example However, later, analysts decided to extend it and include the last two factors as well, giving rise to PESTEL. A PESTEL analysis essentially measures a market. It can be used in conducting marketing and business development related assessments, and can assist in the decision making process of an organization(Hall,2008). It must be noted that the Beatles’ store in London, is a real treat for all the diehard fans of the infamous UK based band called â€Å"the Beatles’ of the 1960s. A large range of memorabilia, ranging from clothing, bags, mugs, and magnets, to miniature guitars, drum kits, old and new records, various autographed items and figurines, everything Beatles related can be found at the store. The store is located at baker street, which was an area originally high class residential, but now is mainly occupied by commercial premises. To gain a better understanding, each factor must be broken down and each component needs to be analyzed separately. Political fac tors address the degree to which a government can intervene in an economy. These factors primarily include tariffs, tax policy, trade restrictions, provision of merit goods, restrictions on demerit goods etc(Middleton,2007). it may also include education, health and a nations infrastructure, all of which are greatly influenced by government intervention. One basic legal legislation that may hamper sales for the store is the decision of the government to impose a GST of 20% (increased from the initial 17.5%) in January 3 2011(Jones,1998). Economic factors include the basic economic ideals such as interest rate, exchange rates, inflation rates, unemployment rate and economic growth. These factors have a massive impact on a businesses operating activities. For example, the inflation rate can determine whether or not people will consume certain goods and services given their real incomes at current inflation rate. Economic conditions affect the feasibility of success and profit at any g iven time, as they have an impact on capital availability, demand and cost. If the demand is extremely high and coupled with low economic cost, it will be profitable for the firm to invest in such a business(Libecap, 1996). The kind of strategy implemented depends on the economic conditions prevailing at the time. If the economy as a whole, or certain sectors of the economy for that matter are expanding, products and services may have more expansive markets and higher demands than during recessionary times. If employment level is high and income levels in turn are high, people in general will demand more as they will have more money to spend in disposable terms. In relation to the store, the fact that the UK economy has just come out of the credit crunch may help in keeping intact the fear of the last economic recession that was not too long ago, which in turn may also hamper growth of sales for the store. Consumption growth has slowed down after the credit crunch of 2008-2009 and i s expected to grow by only 0.6% in 2011 and 1.3% in 2012. By 2015 growth is expected to increase by 2.3% if the government abides by its current economic policies and the spending is continuously financed by extra debt (REFERENCE:  Larry Elliott Economics editor, The Guardian, Monday 4 April 2011). However, this may be a reason to worry in the longer run as spending is financed as a result of economic policies through which

Understanding four pillars of sustainability Essay

Understanding four pillars of sustainability - Essay Example The concern of sustainability in art and design has been on the key trends in recent past. This has called to question the role of designers and artists in sustainability. The article "Sustainability" Has Become a Growing Focus of Artists' (and Art Schools') Attention† by Daniel Grant in general addresses such concern and the new paradigms in integrating the four pillar of sustainability (environment, cultural, financial, social) to enhance better artistic practices. Likewise stresses the effort to institutionalized sustainability into an elective concentration in many schools which is a positive step. Through critically analyzing the article, by acknowledging the prominence and importance of the pillars of sustainability reinforces the need for an integrated various approach to all of the themes in art which is increasingly dynamic. In this regard, the article underscores the fact that the foundational and challenges of sustainability in may be complex in nature, when we take a holistic approach and engaging all the pillars of sustainability these challenges becomes solvable. According to the article, art that focuses on sustainability issues lacks a given look, but reflects a series of ideologies about the significance of art as in the environment and society at large. There are various strategies that are seen to be workable in positive sustainability reinforcement in art. However, institutionalizing issues of sustainability into an elective concentration in many colleges is a surest way to promote this positive trend.

Teenage Awareness of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Barbados Essay Example for Free

Teenage Awareness of Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Barbados Essay During the course of this project many persons provided their assistance to me. Firstly I’d like to thank Ms. Baptiste my CAS teacher for her patience and guidance, as well as the members of my survey for their participation. Finally Id like to thank my family and friends for their support and encouragement. Introduction The topic I have chosen is the levels of awareness of the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases among Barbadian teenagers. I have chosen this topic because of the severity of impact it can have on Barbadian society without proper knowledge. Without knowledge our Barbadian teenagers can make careless decisions and cause an outbreak of sexually transmitted diseases. Sexually transmitted diseases, more commonly known as STD’s are among the world’s most commonly caught diseases. They are painful, irritating, contagious and sometimes fatal. Sexually transmitted diseases are very easy to catch, but they are also very easy to prevent. There are very many different types of STDs, some more harmful than others, such as Chlamydia, syphilis, herpes, and HIV/aids. In this study I will attempt to analyze fifteen teenagers from Queens College with different ages between 11 and 19 through a survey. From the results of these questionnaires, organisations such as can benefit from these by taking my results and placing in effect measures to educate Barbadian teens on sexually transmitted diseases to prevent widespread outbreaks. Literature Review Teens are often at increased risk for STDs compared to other age groups. This is likely due to the fact that teens are more likely to have unprotected sex as well as multiple partners. A lack of available information about prevention and treatment options, as well as a perceived stigma surrounding STD’s, may also deter teens from seeking help when they need it. This was stated by Susan Carney from Youth Development (USA), April 2nd 2008. This study on teens will be proven/ disproven in my study through my surveys among the 15 teens I will analyze. In my research I also found that, 10,000 Teens will contract an STD this year and of those 10,000, 5500 Teens will contract HIV or Chlamydia (more common among teens than older adults), Gonorrhoea also is found to have higher rates in teens than older adults. As many as 15% of sexually active teenage women are infected with HPV, many with the type of HPV linked to cervical cancer. Many STDs were found to have few or no symptoms and were NOT a part of Standard STD Testing. This information was taken from observations of statistics made by Glen Davis from the â€Å"StopThinkDecide† organisation in 2007 (USA). Awareness of the dangers of HIV/Aids is decreasing among young people at a time when fewer are practising safe sex, as revealed by Owen Bowcott in 2009. He conducted a survey on young people to discover how unaware they are of the risks of Hiv/Aids. His findings showed that nearly 60% of 16- to 24-year-olds questioned thought they were not at risk of contracting the infection after having unprotected sex and 8% believed taking a contraceptive pill offered protection against infection. Furthermore, almost 14% thought the fact that they were not gay ensured they could not contract HIV/Aids. This survey of 2,550 young people was carried out for the Staying Alive Foundation charity, which is supported by MTV UK and the Body Shop. Data Collection Sources  Each of the literary texts that I have reviewed has helped to gain a better understanding of this overall topic. This is because the statistics discovered, have been generalized from a percentage of the world’s population. If this method was to be repeated with another percentage of the population and both surveys’ results were reviewed and compared, this would prove them to be reliable as the results would be the same. This is because School education has an age requirement before a child is given more information about STDs and sexual intercourse worldwide. Therefore, children of the norm worldwide would have the same awareness level as the other at a specific age. My method of study (questionnaire and survey) has helped in bettering my knowledge of this topic since I was able to gain quantitative data that supported the statistics of other literary texts and surveys. Also, I was able to gain a minimal amount of qualitative information that allowed me to understand more about the specific areas of this topic Teens are unaware of. This was minimal as most effective questionnaires and surveys have set questions which must be generalised to the public. Presentation of Findings The amount of people who chose the correct sexually transmitted diseases on my survey is shown below in the bar chart. All of the respondents chose HIV/Aids as an STD. Figure below shows a bar chart with results from STD choices. Approximately 11% of students aged 11-19 did know that sexually transmitted diseases can be transmitted through oral sex Over 22% of students thought that all STDs can be seen by ones physical appearance while 78% chose that it is not always shown by ones physical appearance. A total of 44% of individuals studied in the questionnaire thought that homosexuals had a lesser risk at contracting STDs while 33% said they did not know and 23% thought that homosexuals had a higher risk at contracting STDs. 22% of students tested did not know that sexually transmitted diseases can be transmitted through blood transfusions. The question was asked, What age groups are most affected by STDs? and 56% of people answered that the ages 16-20 are more affected by STDs. This is shown in the chart below. 00% of people who took the survey chose that all people were susceptible to STDs. Although 33% of people answered that they thought 11-20% of Barbadian were living with Aids, 33% of people also didn’t know. Shown in the chart below. 56% of students chose contraception as a method to help prevent STDs, while 78% of students chose abstinence. This is shown in the graph below. 89% of those surveyed chose the internet and health clinics as ways to obtain information on STDs. This is shown in the chart below. 7% of students chose HIV/Aids as the most contracted disease throughout the Caribbean. This is shown below. 67% of students chose a sore that hurts and doesn’t go away as the main symptom of STDs. Interpretation of Findings Findings have shown that the awareness of sexually transmitted diseases has often been questioned amongst the younger generation. After conducting a survey to investigate just how aware Barbadian teenagers are of these STDs, results conveyed that factual information was lacking significantly amongst the youngest of the young population, ranging from 11-13 years old. According to my evidence, I believe these youngsters lack this key information due to the vague education received about sexual intercourse, and STDs from School environments. However, even though these young people do not have a broad awareness of these diseases from their School. My findings have shown that School education is still the primary source for young adults to gain this sexual knowledge. This is evident since other school children that were surveyed that ranged from the ages of 14-19 showed a much more in-depth understanding of STDs and forms of contraception. Statements made by some, illustrated that this awareness was mostly received from their school education. Therefore, as we can see, older aged students have more awareness of STDs, whereas the younger ones do not due to School systems having an age requirement. This is in order for students to learn more about these sexually transmitted diseases when they are ready. Discussion of Findings It was shown in the survey that between the ages 11 and 13, students were disturbingly unaware of the various ways of contracting sexually transmitted diseases, furthermore the different types of sexually transmitted diseases. This was not shown in the past researches collected in my literature review. It is shown that all teens studied are moderately aware of the various diseases and are well aware of ways to contract them. The government has put a sufficient investment into making teens more aware of sexually transmitted diseases. It was studied in my lit review that many teens were unaware but the country the surveys were taken from were different and may have less education on the contraction of sexually transmitted diseases in teens. My study was also taken in a very small scale whilst studies such as Susan Carney’s were taken in much larger scale making her study much more likely to be accurate. Limitations Since the survey was small and was only done on 30 students, the survey may not be accurate for the entire percentage awareness of Barbados. Also because some of the questions may have been too personal to ask, some of the required information could not be gathered due to the delicacy of the subject. The survey was only handed out at school where people may have been more educated, therefore more aware so the results may not be accurate. Recommendations My recommendations are that the government should teach students from a younger age about sexually transmitted diseases due to the high rate at which 11-13 year olds answered the questions wrong. Since the age at which teens are having sex is getting younger and younger it is only necessary to educate our future generations to help prevent an epidemic outbreak of STDs in the near future. Parents should also play a vital role in this by talking to their children from early ages so that they can be aware of the seriousness of STDs. Conclusion The lack of awareness seems to be at younger ages yet they are still those of age without knowledge of contraction of STDs. With the high amount of infected people in the Caribbean these respondents should be more aware. My conclusion is that young people should be made more aware of the impact of STDs on society and how to prevent the outbreak of these STDs.

Concentration Levels of Essential Metals

Concentration Levels of Essential Metals Comparative Distribution of Selected Essential Metals in Drinking Water by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric Method Tanzeel ur Rehman and Misbah Zahid ABSTRACT This study reports the concentration levels of selected essential metals; Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe and Zn in the drinking water collected from different areas of Islamabad. The levels of these metals present in the drinking ground water were compared with standards reported worldwide. The analysis was carried out using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The mean metal concentration for Na was far less than those reported worldwide, while the average concentrations of K and Zn were also less than those reported worldwide. The mean concentration of Fe was equal to those reported worldwide standards. Sodium showed maximum concentration while Fe was estimated to be the lowest among the selected metals. Key Words: Essential Metals; Ground water; Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry INTRODUCTION Environmental pollution especially in the metropolitan cities is generally expected to deteriorate the quality of drinking water. One of the important parameters of the quality of water is represented by the concentration of major, minor and trace elements. In industrial areas, some of the metals may be expected to present at considerably elevated level as a result of excessive industrial effluents which might find their way to the underground drinking water reservoir1. Contrary to such theory, one may suggest that, the underground drinking water resources may still be out of reach to the surface pollutants. In any of such cases, regular monitoring of trace metals is always recommended especially in the drinking water2. In Pakistan, only limited population has access to the purified public water supply while the rest of population is dependent upon direct withdrawal of water from both surface and underground sources. Most of the quality problems in Pakistan are due to lack of waste disposal regulations non-availability of treatment facilities and due to lack of public awareness about water quality3. Atomic absorption spectrophotometry is most commonly used for the determination of metal levels in the groundwater and soil4. In addition, few other techniques, such as X-ray fluorescence, ICPMS, ICPES, flame photometry, emission spectrography and voltammetry have been used for metal analysis on limited scale. Atomic absorption method is preferably used because it is more sensitive, and reproducible, relatively free of interferences and convenient to use than most of the other methods of analysis. For the quantitative measurements of trace metal levels, calibration line method has been most widely applied. The most selective light sources in the form of hollow cathode lamps have been in use since a long in atomic absorption spectroscopy5. Drinking water used in Rawalpindi and Islamabad is contributed by two main sources. First is the surface water, mainly in the form of dams and the other is groundwater which is drained off after proper boring. Water supplied to twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad is mostly a run-off collected from the watershed of Murree hills. The contamination is due to the anthropogenic emissions and geological structure of the area bearing unhealthy minerals affecting the taste and characteristics of water6. The pathogenic organism is also responsible for health hazard, apart from the inorganic chemical7. The present study was carried out to estimate the concentration of selected essential metals Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe and Zn in the drinking water and then to compare these metal levels with the international standards in order to evaluate their health effects. EXPERIMENTAL Water samples were collected from the residential areas of Islamabad. These samples were collected in plastic bottles and stored in proper place before analysis. Before filling, the sample bottles were first rinsed with the sample water and were then filled to overflow so that no air bubble was left trapped in the sample. The samples were collected during day time, mostly on a shiny day. Care was taken to collect the representative samples. For calibration line, working standards of the metals were prepared. The stock solutions of 100 ppm of all these metals were prepared from pure metal salts, or metal salt having fixed H2O molecules. The working standards were prepared by appropriately diluting 100 ppm stock solutions of these metals. All equipments used, were properly calibrated prior to experimental measurement. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Hitachi, 170-10, Japan) equipped with laminar flow burner. Air-acetylene flame was used for the determination of these metals under optimum analytical conditions shown in Table-1. Each metal was analyzed at its optimum wavelength under stipulated flow rate of oxidant and fuel, as recommended by the manufacturer of the instrument. Every care was taken to reduce the contamination during the analysis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The analysis of selected essential metals was performed under the optimum analytical conditions as shown in Table-1. The absorption wavelength used for Ca was 422.7 nm, for Mg 285.2 nm, for Na 589.0 nm, for K 766.5 nm, for Fe 248.3 nm, Zn 213.8 nm. The lamp currents were properly adjusted as recommended by the manufacturer and oxidant and fuel flow rates were also controlled for maximum absorption signal (Table-1). The distributed parameters for the selected essential metals in the drinking water are shown in Table-2. Minimum levels for Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, and Zn were 1.15, 9.00, 11.21, 0.70, 0.20 and 0.23 ppm, while their maximum values were 32.43, 25.64, 25.95, 4.43, 0.63 and 0.56 ppm respectively. Ca, Mg and Na were present at dominant levels while K, Fe, and Zn showed relatively low concentrations. Mean and median values were found to be comparable in each case. Overall, the metal levels were quite divergent as manifested by relative high standard deviation values as well as appreciably large coefficient of variance. In water, trace amounts of metals are common, and normally, these are not harmful to health. In fact, some metals are essential for the sustainability of life. Ca, Mg, K and Na must be present at relatively higher levels for normal body functions. Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se and Zn are needed as catalysts for enzyme activities at low levels. Drinking water containing high levels of these extremely important metals or poisonous metals such as Al, As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg. Se and Ag may be dangerous to health8. The presence of metals in water supply may be natural or may be the result of contamination. Natural presence of these metals is the result of dissolution of metals due to the connection of water with soil or rocks9. Corroded material i.e corrosion of pipes and waste disposal leakage are the major sources of contamination of water. Metals present at high enough level than threshold limit value should be removed to be out of risk factor. Comparison of present metal levels with the international standards is shown in Table-3. Ca is important in controlling nerve impulse conduction and muscle contraction in living organisms. It has very important role in blood clotting. It converts fibrinogen to fibrin during blood clotting10. Ca is very important for good health. Most of the required portion of Ca for human body is provided by the drinking water containing Ca. This particular amount of Ca prevents ailments as hypertension, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disorders. The calcium level was found in the range of 1.15 to 32.43 ppm. The WS-1, WS-2, WS-3 has approximately equal amount of Ca while the WS-6 has a maximum amount of Ca. The median of all these samples were 18.64 ppm. The WS-5 was found to have the minimum amount of Ca. All the observation shows that Ca has the low amount than the WHO standards. The standard deviation is 8.02 and the co–efficient of variance is 40.8 which is maximum than all the other elem ents. Magnesium is driven out from the bodies of healthy persons. People may suffer from increase in blood pressure, muscle weakness and even coma if they have kidney disease. Mg is for signaling the nervous system and it also participates in osmotic and electrolyte balance. It is essentially required in photosynthesis. In human, it can cause genetic disorder11. In the present work the Mg mean value was found 18.04 ppm. The concentration of Mg ranges from 9.00–25.64 ppm. The lowest value was found in WS-6D and the highest was found in WS-2C. The median was found 16.36 ppm .All the values were found to be below the international standards of WHO. The maximum difference was found in WS-1 samples which is 15.93–25.23. The median was lower than the mean which shows asymmetry in its distribution. The standard deviation is 4.59 ppm and co-efficient of variance is 23.21 which is lower than all other elements. Sodium is beneficial to healthy adults at normal intake levels. But people having hypertension or heart problem should reduce Na intake to lower the danger of heart diseases and blood pressure. Na has serious effects on both human life and crop yield. Water high in Na is considered soft and generable for irrigation12. In present study, the result showed the mean value of Na was 19.80 ppm which was higher than Ca and Mg but this level was not the toxic level, so it has no bad effects. Na levels range from 11.21 to 35 ppm. The least Na levels were found in WS-6D and the highest was found in WS-4E. The median was higher than the mean value which showed the negative asymmetry in the data. The spread of the data is found in form standards deviation and was 6.02 ppm and the co-efficient of variance was 33.39 %. In comparison with the international standards, the Na levels found in the samples were low than WHO, EU, UK and Japan, but are just equivalent to USEPA standards. In natural water, K is found in far smallest concentration than other metals. It acts in water as Na does, although it occurs in small concentration but plays an important role in metabolism of the fresh water environment and is regarded to be the vital macro-nutrients. It has an important role in maintenance of osmotic and electrolytic balance. It is important in proper rhythm of heart beat. It is important for creation of nerve impulse and its transmission13. In our analysis the K ranges from 0.70 to 4.43 ppm and mean value was 3.06 ppm. The lowest level was found in WS-6A and the highest in WS-3A. The median is 3.53 ppm which showed the negative asymmetry and standard deviation is 1.19 and co-efficient of variance is 39%. K values in present study were much lower than EU and UK standards. Iron in water has not hazardous for health by itself but it may be responsible for increasing the hazard of pathogenic organisms, because many of these organisms need Fe to grow. Iron is one of the most abundant metals in the earth crust and is essential for plants, animals and human being. The permissible limit placed on this metal has no health significance14. In our study the mean value found for the Fe was 0.39 ppm. The minimum value was found at 0.2 ppm in the WS-4B, and the maximum was 0.63 ppm in WS-1A. The median found for Fe was 0.40 which is greater than the mean and show asymmetry in the data. The standard deviation was 0.13 which showed small spread of the data. The co-efficient of variance value was 33.79%, in comparison with the international standards of WHO, EU, USEPA, UK, Russia and Japan present levels were almost same. The iron present in the sample seems to be ferrous iron since no discoloration of water was observed when collected. Zinc is very important constituent in our diet. Zn has hazardous effects if we increase its amount 10-15 times higher than the amount required for good health. Large doses of Zn taken orally even for a short period of time can cause nausea, stomach cramps and vomiting. Its intake for longer time results in anemia and in decreasing the levels of good cholesterol. Metal fume fever, a short term disease, may be the result of inhaling Zn as dust or fumes of zinc. Breathing high levels of Zn for long time, no doubt, has long-term effects but these are still unknown. Zinc is essential element for plants and exists in water and soil as an organic complexes and inorganic salts. Zinc is required for growth, sexual development, wound healing infection, sense of taste and night vision in human15-17. The mean value found in water samples was 0.42 ppm which ranged from 0.23 to 0.56 ppm. The median of the data reading was 0.48 which showed negative asymmetry in the data. The standard deviation sho wn was 0.12 ppm and co-efficient of variance was 27.49 %. When these values are compared with international standards the Zn level was found lower than WHO, US EPA, Russia, but was higher than EU. CONCLUSION It was observed during the present study that mean concentrations of Ca, Mg, Na, K, Fe, and Zn in the drinking water of Islamabad were found to be 19.65, 18.04, 19.80, 3.06, 0.39, and 0.42 ppm respectively. For Na, K, Ca, Mg and Zn, these values are far less in comparison to the concentrations reported worldwide, whereas for Fe present value is nearly equal to the reported values. Ca, Mg and Na were in high concentrations as they are macronutrients while K, Fe and Zn being the micronutrients were present in low concentrations. Over all, the selected metals revealed asymmetric distribution in their concentration duly reported by standard deviation and co-efficient of variation. Table-1: Optimum analytical conditions on FAAS for selected essential metals Table-2: Distribution of selected essential metal levels (ppm) in the drinking water BDL = Below Detection Limits Table-3: Comparison of selected essential metal levels (ppm) with the international standards reported world-wide18 REFERENCES Manahan, S. E. (1997). Environmental Science and Technology, Lewis Publishers, New York, pp. 339-340. Khan, M. J.; Sarwar, S. and Khattak, R. A. (2004). Evaluation of river Jehlum water for heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cd, Pb, and Cr) and its suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes at district Muzaffarabad (AK), Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 26, 436-442. InamUllah, E. and A. Alam, (2014). Assessment of drinking water quality in Peshawar, Pakistan. Bulg. J.Agric. Sci., 20: 595-600 Robinson, J. W. (1995). Undergraduate Instrumental Analysis, 5th Edition, Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 7-8, 316-318. Mendham, J.; Denney, R. C.; Barnes, J. D. and M. Thomas, (2000). Quantitative Chemical Analysis, 6th Edition, Addison Wesley Longman Singapore. pp. 60-64 Manzoor, S.; M. H Shah, M. H; Shaheen, N.; Khalique, A. and Jaffar, M. (2006). Characterization distribution and comparison of selected metals in textile effluents, adjoining soil and groundwater, Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 28, 10-13. Rauf, M. A.; Ikram, M. and Shaukat, S. (2002). Water analysis of Rawal lake and its surrounding areas, Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 24, 271-281. Paul B Tchounwou, Clement G Yedjou, Anita K Patlolla, and Dwayne J Sutton, Heavy Metals Toxicity and the Environment, EXS. (2012); 101: pp. 133–164 Kumar, A. (1989) Environmental Chemistry, 2nd Edition, Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, pp. 60-64. Tahir, M. A.; Chaudary, M.; Rasool, M. R.; Naeen, T. M.; Chughtai, I. R. and Dhami, M. S. I. (1999). Quality of drinking water samples of Sialkot and Gujranwala, Proceedings of Tenth National Chemistry Conference, pp. 62-69. Konrad M, Weber S. Recent advances in molecular genetics of hereditary magnesium-losing disorders. Journal of American Society, Nephrol. (2003);14:249–260. Dr. James Robbins, Irrigation Water For Greenhouses And Nurseries Agriculture And Natural Resources , FSA6061. Hodgkin AL, Huxley AF (1952). Currents carried by sodium and potassium ions through the membrane of the giant axon of Loligo. Journal of Physiology 116 (4): 449–472. Afzal Shah,Abdul Niaz,Nazeef Ullah,Ali Rehman,Muhammad Akhlaq,Muhammad Zakir,andMuhammad Suleman Khan; Comparative Study of Heavy Metals in Soil and Selected Medicinal Plants; Journal of Chemistry, Volume20137. Simmer K, Thompson RP. Zinc in the fetus and newborn. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl (1985); 319:158-63. Fabris N, Mocchegiani E. Zinc, human diseases and aging. Aging (Milano) (1995); 7:77-93. Maret W, Sandstead HH. Zinc requirements and the risks and benefits of zinc supplementation. J Trace Elem Med Biol (2006); 20:3-18. Radojevic, M. and Bashkin, V. N. (1999). Practical Environmental Analysis, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK. 1

The Ancient Concept Of Diplomatic Immunity And Relations Across Borders Law Essay

The Ancient Concept Of Diplomatic Immunity And Relations Across Borders Law Essay INTRODUCTION Diplomatic immunity is considered as an ancient concept concerning relations across borders. It even dates back to Ancient Greece and Rome. Today, it is a principle that has been codified into the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations 1961 and this regulates past customs and practices. Indeed, as the ICJ indicated in US v. Iran  [1]  , a large number of the provisions of the Convention reflect customary international law. Moreover, it was found that almost all disputes relating to diplomatic law could be resolved by referring to the Convention or the obligations contained in it. The term Diplomatic immunity and privileges connotes a form of legal immunity and a policy held between governments. This aims at ensuring that  diplomats  are safe in the host State and that they are not liable to  lawsuit  or  prosecution  under the laws of the receiving State. It is noteworthy to state that there is a distinction between an immunity and a privilege but these are known to have been used interchangeably  [2]  . Various authors like Morton, Stefko and Makowski have tried to distinguish between the meanings. Although each of them described the terms in his own words, they basically have a common denominator. Privileges can be defined as benefits or rights that other persons do not have while Immunities can be considered as exemptions from the jurisdiction of the law of the receiving State.  [3]   The traditional tasks of the diplomats can be summarised as follows: analytical assessment of the receiving State, protection of citizens of the sending State who are present in the host State and relation building between the two States. However, today, diplomats also deal with issues such as the promotion of trade, peacemaking, environmental concerns, nuclear weapons and drug abuse across borders amongst others. According to Brownlie, diplomacy exists to create and maintain communication between States so that objectives regarding commercial, political and legal activities can be pursued.  [4]  It can be argued that, today, instantaneous communication can be made via modern devices. Yet, long-distance communication can in no way rival the personal and confidential meetings between the representative of the sending State and the Government of the receiving State. As such, diplomats are granted some immunities and privileges to perform the tasks to which they are accredited efficiently.  [5]   Unfortunately, diplomats started overusing or abusing of the immunities and privileges they were benefitting from. Indeed, immunities ranging from personal immunity from jurisdiction to the inviolability of the diplomatic bag led to abuses of the protection afforded by the VCDR. Furthermore, since the staff and families of diplomatic officials also enjoy privileges and immunities, there were abuses by them also. Hence, members of diplomatic missions and their families are immune from local punishment and they seem to be above the local law. Although the VCDR provides remedies against diplomats, staff and families who commit abuses, it seems that these are not enough to suppress wrongdoings. Nevertheless, the receiving States are not left to their misfortune without remedies. Indeed, certain measures are provided for in the VCDR to hinder the condemnable acts of the diplomats such as the declaration that the diplomat is persona non grata. Additionally, various acts in the UK, the US and the Republic of South Africa will be analysed in order to show which measures were taken by a few Governments to try to curb diplomatic abuses. Without any doubt, the VCDR did not prepare for some eventualities and measures to deter the unwarranted acts by diplomats are lacking. Although it would be difficult to totally eliminate the abuses, measures can be taken to reduce them considerably. It is to be noted that only selected articles of the VCDR which deal with immunity, privileges and abuses will be dealt with in this dissertation. Moreover, for illustration and analysis purposes, some cases prior to 1961 will be used throughout the dissertation. This dissertation will firstly explore the history behind Diplomatic Relations and the theories which moulded diplomatic immunity and privileges (Chapter 1). Secondly, the different types of immunities and privileges granted to diplomats will be elaborated upon (Chapter 2). Next, abuses by diplomatic agents and their families will be dealt with (Chapter 3). Furthermore, an overview on existing measures to curb abuses will follow (Chapter 4). Finally, several suggestions have been put forward to hinder such abuses (Chapter 5). Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  CHAPTER 1: HISTORICAL ORIGIN AND SOURCES OF LAW OF DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY Modern Diplomatic Law was shaped by events and ideas since time immemorial. According to some authors  [6]  , diplomatic immunity existed since the era of cavemen -who would probably communicate with one another to draw the limits of their hunting grounds. This chapter will deal with the most important parts of the historical development of diplomatic relations (1.1). Then, the VCDR will be analysed (1.2). Eventually, an overview will follow on other important sources of Diplomatic Law (1.3). HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS There were many stages of development of diplomatic relations in the past (1.1.1). As from antiquity itself, modern forms of protection were given to envoys. It is found that diplomatic relations were also influenced by Natural Law from the 12th to the 17th century and positivist writers after the 17th century.  [7]  Finally, there were also theroies which shaped diplomatic immunity (1.1.2). DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS IN THE PAST The preamble of the VCDR states that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Recalling that peoples of all nations from ancient times have recognized the status of diplomatic agentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Building on this statement, it is affirmed that Diplomatic Immunity has undeniably been a facet of diplomatic relations for countless years. In fact, it is regarded as one of the oldest branches of International Law. Indeed, since time immemorial, envoys were selected and sent to forward messages, obtain replies and give report on news from receiving States. Necessity was a principle which forced most States to give diplomats protection, both within the host State and in States of transit.  [8]   In Antiquity, diplomatic immunity was regarded as a divine right. The main factors ensuring immunity and privileges were culture, language and religion. The ideas and customs of the Roman community concerning immunity have been categorically established and these created the foundation of modern practices. The earliest record of organised diplomatic law is found in Ancient Greece whereby the Greek Government gave special status to foreign representatives.  [9]   During the Renaissance, scholars and others laid emphasis on the idea that Natural Law gave a strong argument for the protection of envoys during their official functions.  [10]  The most important principle of the Naturalist doctrine was that of necessity; it was necessary to protect ambassadors because of the importance of their functions.  [11]  Grotius, a naturalist writer, arrived at the conclusion that immunity was based on Natural Law; he argued that the safety of diplomats was far more important than any advantage which could be derived from the punishment of his crimes. His security would be challenged if he were to be prosecuted by States other than the sending State.  [12]   By the 19th century, Natural law declined and there was a shift to positive law. One positivist theorist, Van Bynkershoek, pointed out that the law of Nations was based on the common consent between Nations through international customs or through treaties. He continued by expanding the concept of immunity and justifying it, whether there were questionable acts or not, by saying that an ambassador acted through wine and women, through favours and foul devices  [13]  . Certainly, the evolution of diplomatic relations did not stop here. Immunities and privileges developed partly as a result of sovereign immunity and the independence and equality of States.  [14]  Further, as there were more and more permanent missions as compared to ad hoc ones, Sovereigns accepted the importance of ambassadors to negotiate and collect information.  [15]  In 1815, it is found that Vienna was the first site of a Congress for diplomatic agents. Next, the first international attempt to codify the Diplomatic Law was in 1895 with the Draft Convention of the Institute of International Law.  [16]   In 1927, the League of Nations Committee of Experts for the Progressive Codification of International Law made a report analysing existing customary law of diplomatic privileges and immunities. This aimed at providing a temporary instrument until a more comprehensive codification could be written.  [17]  Eventually, Diplomatic Law further progressed with the Havana Convention on Diplomatic Officers 1928. According to its preamble, diplomats should not claim immunities which were not fundamental in performing his official tasks. THEORIES WHICH SHAPED DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY With a further step towards modern immunity with the creation of resident or permanent embassies, three theories were developed and these moulded diplomatic law since the 16th century.  [18]  These theories are Exterritoriality, Personal Representation and Functional Necessity. Each played a prominent role during different periods in history. (a) PERSONAL REPRESENTATION The basis of this theory was that diplomats received immunity as if they were the foreign sovereign. This was out of respect and avoided any form of conflict as the sending State was pleased. In other words, a diplomats immunity arose because he was an extension of the ruler sending him. The representative was treated as though the sovereign of that country was conducting the negotiations, making alliances or refusing requests  [19]  . The great theorists of the 16th and 17th century like Grotius, Van Bynkershoek, Wicquefort, Montesquieu and Vattel supported the use of this theory  [20]  . In The Schooner Exchange v McFaddon  [21]  , the Court held that, by regarding the ambassador as the sovereigns representative, it ensured their stature. If they were not accorded exemptions, every sovereign would cast a shadow on his own dignity when sending an ambassador to a foreign State. (b) EXTERRITORIALITY This theory is based on the Roman law principle whereby a man took his own lands law with him when he went to another land  [22]  . The crux of this theory is that the offices, property and homes of diplomats and even their persons were to be treated, throughout their stay, as though they were on the territory of the sending State. Any crimes committed by the members of that embassy could not be lawfully prosecuted in the receiving State. This theory soon developed and extended to the staff and family of diplomats. Authors like Emmerich de Vattel and James Lorimer emphasised that an ambassadors house and person are not domiciled in the receiving State, but in the sending State  [23]  . In King v Guerchy  [24]  , an English Court did not prosecute a French ambassador for an attempt to assassinate another Frenchman. The Court held that an ambassador owes no subjection to the Courts of the country to which he is sent. He is supposed, by a fiction of law, to be still resident in his own country  [25]  . In Taylor v Best  [26]  , Jervis CJ declared that the basis of privilege is that the ambassador is assumed to be in his own country. The Attorney-General in Magdalena Steam Navigation Co v Martin  [27]  expressed similar opinions. (c) FUNCTIONAL NECESSITY Functional necessity aims not only at allowing the individual diplomat to function freely and effectively, but also ensuring the efficient functioning of the diplomatic process as a whole. This requires the fullest protection be given even if the diplomat goes beyond his function  [28]  . This is based on the idea that immunity is necessary and recognised for the efficient functioning of the diplomat. This theory gained impetus due to the expansion of permanent resident embassies. It is incorporated in the VCDR as the dominant theory in the preamble. Functional necessity limits immunities and privileges to those functions performed by the diplomat in his official capacity. When performing an official task, diplomats need to be able to move freely and not be obstructed by the receiving State. They must be able to observe and report with confidence without the fear of being reprimanded  [29]  . This immunity may be understood to mean that diplomats may break the law of the receiving State in order to fulfil their functions. Grotius stresses that an ambassador must be free from all coercion in order to fulfil his duties  [30]  . Vattel placed the greatest emphasis on the theory in order for ambassadors to accomplish the object of their appointment safely, freely, faithfully and successfully by receiving the necessary immunities  [31]  . In the 18th century, the Lord Chancellor in Buvot v. Barbuit  [32]  declared that diplomatic privileges stem from the necessity that nations need to interact with one another. Similarly, in Parkinson v Potter  [33]  , the Court observed that an extension of exemption from jurisdiction of the Courts was essential to the duties that the ambassador has to perform. THE VCDR  [34]   Further along the time-line, in 1961, an international treaty was born to codify the past practices: the VCDR. This is the main source of Diplomatic Law and which is embodied into a comprehensive and widely accepted international treaty which was signed by 179 parties. It was adopted on 18 April 1961 during the UN Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities held in Vienna. This Convention bears testament to the efforts of States to reach agreement for the common good. Its provisions marked progression of custom into settled law and resolved areas of contention where practices conflicted  [35]  . The Convention contains 53 articles that govern the behaviour of diplomats, 13 of which address the issue of immunity. Due to the comprehensive formulation of a wide range of aspects of diplomatic law, the VCDR met with a lot of success. Indeed most states were satisfied because of the presence reciprocity  [36]  which renders each state both a sending and a receiving state. It is to be noted that diplomatic immunity should not be confused with Consular immunity  [37]  , State immunity, UN immunity  [38]  and international organisations immunity  [39]  . Importantly, the VCDR focuses only on permanent envoys and does not deal with ad hoc envoys which are covered by another Convention  [40]  . This section will deal with working towards the VCDR (1.2.1). For a better understanding of the VCDR, a brief study on the provisions of the VCDR will follow (1.2.2). 1.2.1 WORKING TOWARDS THE VCDR Before 1961, Diplomatic Law was, to a large extent, customary and it was accompanied by some attempts to codify certain rules  [41]  . None of those attempts addressed the field in sufficient detail. In 1957, following the General Assembly Resolution 685, the ILC accepted to prepare a draft Convention on Diplomatic Relations. The drafters had the burdensome task of incorporating the concerns of all countries involved in the early 1960s and a history dating as far as the first civilised settlements. The ILC requested information and opinions from governments so that a worthy document could be drafted. This was necessary in order to eliminate diverging views and customs. While formulating the Convention, the drafters also considered the absolute immunity granted to diplomats since ancient times. In 1961, the Conference was organised to discuss the draft and this was attended by 81 States and several international organisations as observers. These States were able to reach consensus on many issues. The VCDR, based on a series of draft articles, was agreed upon. It solved dissensions concerning State practice, made available additional rules and agreed that customs would govern field which were not dealt with in the VCDR  [42]  . It is to be noted that although the VCDR successfully codified several practices, not everyone got what they wanted. For instance, the US argued unsuccessfully for retaining many diplomatic privileges while other States like Italy and Argentina wanted limited immunity. Colombia, Egypt, India and Norway amongst others proposed the prohibiting of diplomatic personnel from engaging in commercial activity. 1.2.2 PROVISIONS OF THE VCDR  [43]   The VCDR provides certain immunities and privileges to different levels of diplomatic officials, their staff and families. For example, diplomats benefit from inviolability of their person, immunity from the law of the receiving state and inviolability of their property. Furthermore, the missions premises and documents are also protected from violation. The VCDR also grants many fiscal privileges and limited customs exemptions. Next, the VCDR gives definitions of some typical functions of the diplomatic mission such as representing the sending State in another state  [44]  . The VCDR also lays importance on the duties and rights of the receiving State. Examples are the rights to disapprove a potential head of mission, to decide that a member of the diplomatic mission is persona non grata and to limit the size of the mission amongst others. Additionally, the host state must protect the premises of the mission as well as its communications. Furthermore, the receiving state has to provide adequate facilities so that the mission can function smoothly. It is noteworthy to stress that an accredited person is not exempt from the obligation to obey local law. In fact, he is under an express duty to do so. OTHER IMPORTANT SOURCES OF DIPLOMATIC LAW Apart from the VCDR, Diplomatic Immunity is regulated by other sources of law. Indeed, they deal with aspects which are not covered under the main Convention. As such, there are Optional Protocols (1.3.1), a Convention covering the prevention and the punishment of internationally protected persons (1.3.2) and Municipal Law which is very important for States which are not directly influenced by International Law (1.3.3). 1.3.1 OPTIONAL PROTOCOLS During the UN Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities held in Vienna, 2 Optional Protocols were also adopted. Countries may ratify the main treaty, that is, the VCDR, without necessarily ratifying these optional agreements. These are the Protocol: Concerning Acquisition of Nationality which mainly dictates that the Head of the mission, the staff of the Mission and their families shall not acquire the nationality of the receiving country. Concerning Compulsory Settlement of Dispute. In brief, disputes arising from the interpretation of the VCDR may be brought before the ICJ. As such, article 1 of that Protocol states that: Disputes arising out of the interpretation of the Convention shall lie within the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice and may accordingly be brought before the Court. 1.3.2 THE  UN CONVENTION ON THE PREVENTION AND PUNISHMENT OF CRIMES AGAINST INTERNATIONALLY PROTECTED PERSONS, INCLUDING DIPLOMATIC AGENTS 1973 (CPPCPP) The CPPCPP provides that States parties must consider attacks upon diplomats as crimes in internal law and obliges them to extradite or prosecute offenders. Also, in exceptional cases, a diplomat may be arrested or detained on the basis of self-defence or in the interests of protecting  human life in the receiving State. A series of kidnappings of senior diplomats occurred in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The object of the kidnappings was always to extract a particular demand from a government. The threat of the execution of a diplomat and the failure to fulfil the demand leads to the refusing government being held responsible for his death. As a consequence of the high incidence of political acts of violence directed against diplomats and other officials, the General Assembly of the UN adopted the CPPCPP. The foreseen offences are primarily murder, kidnapping, attacks upon the person, violent attacks upon official and private premises, and any threats or attempts to commit any of the above offences.  [45]   Nations ratifying the Prevention and Punishment Convention make these crimes punishable with appropriate penalties, which take into account the gravity of the offence and either extradite offenders or apply the domestic law. Where there is a threat to the safety of a diplomat, such as a mob attack or kidnapping, the receiving State should provide special protection, like an armed guard or bodyguards. 1.3.3 MUNICIPAL LAW Many states are not bound by international law. Indeed, there are rules that treaties made do not have direct effect in national law. As such, it is necessary that those provisions of the Conventions be transformed into municipal law. There are, therefore, a number of Acts of parliament which mirror the VCDR and which also complement it or substitute some of its provisions. In the UK, these include the Diplomatic and Consular Premises Act 1987, providing that the consent of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs is required before land can become diplomatic or consular premises and giving him certain powers in respect of disused premises and the Diplomatic Privileges Act 1964 which reflects the provisions of the VCDR. In the Republic of South Africa, there is the Diplomatic Privileges Act  [46]  which repealed the Diplomatic Immunities Act of 1932 and the Diplomatic Immunities Amendment Act of 1934. In the Republic of Mauritius, the Constitution is the supreme law of the land  [47]  and International Law has no effects without ratification. As such, laws must be passed at parliamentary level, for example, the Consular Relations Act  [48]  reflecting the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963 and the Diplomatic Relations Act  [49]  which reflects the VCDR. Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ Ãƒâ€œÃ‚  Ó Ãƒâ€œÃ‚ 

Crossing Brooklyn Ferry by Walt Whitman Essay -- Poem Poet Whitman B

"Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" by Walt Whitman Recurring Images and Motifs in "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" In the poem "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" by Walt Whitman, there are many recurring images and motifs that can be seen. Whitman develops these images throughout the course of the poem. The most dominant of these are the linear notion of time, playing roles, and nature. By examining these motifs and tracing their development, ones understanding of the poem becomes highly deepened. Whitman challenges the linear notion of time by connecting past with future. This can be seen in the first stanza, as the poem opens: "And you that shall cross from shore to shore years hence are more to me, and more in my meditations than you might suppose"(4-5). This lets the reader know that he has written this with the reader in mind, even before that reader existed. He challenges time by connecting his time with ours. He has preconcived us reading this poem. When we read his words we are connected to him and his feelings, all in the same time. He is sure that after he is gone the water will still run and people will still "see the shipping of Manhattan/and the heights of Brooklyn" (14-15). He makes his past and our futher all one. No matter the time nor the distance, the reader will experience the same way he experiences at the moment in time he resides: Just as you feel when you look on the river and sky...

Review of Sublime video :: essays research papers

The music video that I chose to write my paper on, is called "Date Rape" and it is performed by Sublime. I've seen the video plenty of times and I taped it back in 1993 when I first got their album 40 oz. to Freedom. The song is about a man that picks up a lady in a bar and rapes her. He winds up going to court and the judge finds that, "he was full of shit, and he gave him twenty-five years." Then it talks about the man going to jail and even getting "butt raped by a large inmate." The video is much like a movie in the way that it is displayed. As the song goes on and on the video accompanies the lyrics by showing what the man looked like (which in the song was with "a double chin and a plastic smile"). At the beginning, the video shows the man go into the bar and getting the attention of the lady. He convinces her to take a ride in his van and forces her to succumb to his will by saying, "if it wasn't for date rape I'd never get laid." After he is finished he lets her out and she files a police report and then "she took the guy's ass to court." She goes to court and low and behold, the judge is the great Ron Jeremy (of porn fame). Ron sentences the man to twenty-five years of imprisonment and later it shows a depiction of the guy being raped in prison. The video says a great deal for women and actually won a couple of awards for their "anti-rape message." Although Sublime's lead singer, Brad, claims that it was just a song he wrote when he was high, it received a rather large acceptance by many women's groups. The video sends this message out to the viewer as well. Any man that will rape a woman will almost definitely hate getting butt slammed in jail by a large Review of Sublime video :: essays research papers The music video that I chose to write my paper on, is called "Date Rape" and it is performed by Sublime. I've seen the video plenty of times and I taped it back in 1993 when I first got their album 40 oz. to Freedom. The song is about a man that picks up a lady in a bar and rapes her. He winds up going to court and the judge finds that, "he was full of shit, and he gave him twenty-five years." Then it talks about the man going to jail and even getting "butt raped by a large inmate." The video is much like a movie in the way that it is displayed. As the song goes on and on the video accompanies the lyrics by showing what the man looked like (which in the song was with "a double chin and a plastic smile"). At the beginning, the video shows the man go into the bar and getting the attention of the lady. He convinces her to take a ride in his van and forces her to succumb to his will by saying, "if it wasn't for date rape I'd never get laid." After he is finished he lets her out and she files a police report and then "she took the guy's ass to court." She goes to court and low and behold, the judge is the great Ron Jeremy (of porn fame). Ron sentences the man to twenty-five years of imprisonment and later it shows a depiction of the guy being raped in prison. The video says a great deal for women and actually won a couple of awards for their "anti-rape message." Although Sublime's lead singer, Brad, claims that it was just a song he wrote when he was high, it received a rather large acceptance by many women's groups. The video sends this message out to the viewer as well. Any man that will rape a woman will almost definitely hate getting butt slammed in jail by a large

Fundamentalist Christians and Negative Conceptions of Dungeons & Dragons :: Christianity Religion Essays

Fundamentalist Christians and Negative Conceptions of Dungeons & Dragons This paper is an attempt to explain the negative conceptions about role-playing games, especially claims that the games are Satanic. I will be using many primary sources from the Internet, most of which are from Christian websites, to determine precisely what is being claimed about the games. I will be using more academic sources in order to try to explain where the claims are coming from. As the websites primarily focus on Dungeons & Dragons (henceforth noted as D&D), I too will focus on this game. First I will examine the most common conceptions one by one and try to determine the source of each, and then I will examine the claims as a whole to give an overall theory about them. The first claim that I’ll discuss is that D&D causes players to commit suicide. According to http://www.webzonecom.com/ccn/cults/satn10.txt, Dr. Radedki, â€Å"chairman of the National Coalition on Television Violence†, said â€Å"[t]here is no doubt in my mind that the game Dungeons and Dragons is causing young men to kill themselves and others.† A character in the Chick Tract â€Å"Dark Dungeons† commits suicide after her character dies in the game. The conception seems to be that players get so obsessed by the game, so enthralled, that when something goes wrong (like their character dying) they have difficulty dealing with the consequences. They have so much difficulty, it is claimed, that they sometimes kill themselves because of it. This claim appears to stem from a few different events. This brief history is agreed upon by a number of authors, but I am specifically using Brian Webber’s account, from http://www.voicesofunreason.com/essays/dungeonsanddragonsnotasatanicgame, and Paul Cardwell, Jr.’s article in the Skeptical Enquirer. The first event was in 1979, when a student named James Dallas Egbert III disappeared from Michigan State University’s campus. It was theorized by an investigator named William Dear that Egbert was lost in the steam tunnels under the campus, acting as a character in D&D. He was found about a month later, but his disappearance had already been highly publicized, starting a new public perception of the game. A year later Egbert committed suicide. In 1982, a boy named Irving Pulling II committed suicide.

Project Management Essay

Table of Contents Activity on the node network diagram3 Determination of the timing of activities and the total float4 The project duration and the critical path†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦5 The earliest date the project can be completed given the starting date – Monday 7th May 2012†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 The effect on the duration of the whole project if:†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..5 Activity F is delayed by one day5 Activity N is delayed by one day6 Activity O is completed one day early †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..6 The limitations of Network diagrams†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..6 7| 5| 12| | D| | 7| 0| 12| 1. Activity on the node network diagram 5| 2| 7| | C| | 5| 0| 7| 0| 4| 4| | A| | 0| 0| 4| 4| 1| 5| | B| | 4| 0| 5| 12| 1| 13| | E| | 21| 9| 22| 12| 6| 18| | F| | 16| 4| 22| 12| 8| 20| | G| | 14| 2| 22| 12| 10| 22| | H| | 12| 0| 22| 22| 10| 32| | I| | 22| 0| 32| 32| 4| 36| | J| | 32| 0| 36| 36| 1| 37| | K| | 45| 9| 46| 36| 6| 42| | L| | 40| 4| 46| 36| 10| 46| | M| | 36| 0| 46| 36| 2| 38| | N| | 44| 8| 46| 46| 4| 50| | O| | 46| 0| 50| 50| 1| 51| | P| | 50| 0| 51| 51| 1| 52| | Q| | 51| 0| 52| Legend: Earliest start time (EST)| Duration| Earliest finish time (EFT)| | Task | | Latest start time (LST)| Total Float| Latest finish time (LFT)| Critical Path The project duration: 52 days A, B, C, D, H, I,J,M,O,P,Q 2. Determination of the timing of activities and the total float The earliest start time (EST), the earliest time at which the node could be reached, and the earliest finish time (EFT), the latest time by which the node must be reached if the project is to finsh by its required completion date, are produced by a forward pass through the network. The first step of the forward pass is calculating the earliest start time, commencing from the unique project start node and finishing at the unique project completion node. The first task of the project is A, hence the earliest start time of task A may be set to zero since no information has been given as to the starting day of the task. The next step is determining the EFT, which is calculated by adding the EST to the duration of the task. Given the duration of every task, the proces of calculating the EFT of every task is quite straight forward assuming that the EST of every task is the EFT of the previous task. However, when it comes to a merge activity the largest value must be taken. The latest event times, refering to the latest start time (LST) and the latest finish time (LFT), are the times when a particular task may commence without delaying the project duration and when the particular task may be completed without delaying the project duration. Usually such times are required when the project has an established target finish date. The latest event times are calculated using the backward pass technique. Such technique begins by determining the latest finish time of the last task of the project completion and works backwards to the start node. Since no inforamtion has been given regarding the target finish date of the project, the LFT of the project is equal to the EFT in which the project can be done. Hence, the LST can be calculated by subtracting theduration from the LFT. Working backwards, the LST of the previous task is to be the EFT of the task with the determined EST. It is important that when it comes to a merge activity the smallest value must be take n. Once the LFT of every task is completed the total float can be calculated by the following formula: Total float = latest time of finish event – earliest time of start event – duration 3. The project duration and the critical path The project duration was determined by adding the EST of every task to the durtation of every task carried forward from one task to another. Hence, the longest path determines the duration of the project and therefore establishes the critical path since the longest necessary path through a network of activities when respecting their interdependencies is considered to be critical. Furthermore, the critical path may also be determined as the path with the least float. In fact, the critical path determined above has the least float (0) and the longest duration of the project (52 days). 4. The earliest date the project can be completed given the starting date – Monday 7th May 2012 The earliest finishing time of the project as established in the diagram is that of fifty two days. Given that the project can be completed using a five day working week, therefore it will take ten weeks and two days to complete  the project. Calculating the weeks and days from the 7th of May 2012, the earliest date in which the project can be completed is on Tuesday 17th July 2012. 5. The effect on the duration of the whole project if: a. Activity F is delyaed by one day. The delay in activity F will not affect the duration of the whole project as such because the increase in duration will not exceed the total float of activity F, therefore does not exceed the duration of activity H which forms part of the critical path. Activity F can only affect the duration of the project if it delays by five days as it will surpass the amount of days that the activity is allowed to float. b. Activity N is delayed by one day The total float of activity N is that of eight days. Therefore, the amount of days that activity N will be delayed does not affect the duration of the project. In this case, in order for the duration of the projet to be effected the delay time of activity N has to be of nine days as it will surpass the duration of activity M which is part of the critical path. c. Activity O is completed one day early Given that the activity forms part of the critcal path, therefore the duration of the project will be affected not only by being completed early but also if the activity had to delay since the total float is that of zero. In this case, since the activity will be carried out one day sooner than expected, the project will be completed one day early and the duration of the project will be that of fifty one days instead of fifty two days. 6. The limitations of Network diagrams In project managent network diagrams have several advantages when it comes to scheduling projects. One major advantage is that it helps project managers identify the most important activities which may affact the project schedule. However, such diagrams have also limitations to their use in scheduling a project. For large projects a network diagram may not be the ideal scheduling technique because of several activities and dependency  relationships that can make the diagram complex to carry out and difficult for other employees to understand. Furthermore, if the plan of the project changes during the completion of the project, the precendence network will have to be done all over again. In addition, such diagram therefore, may be considered as a time consuming technique. The techniuqe may also take too much to identify all activities and inter-relate them to multiple project paths. Network diagrams may also not be suitable for first time projects because if project cannot be broken down into distinctive activities with known duratrion for every activity then the precendence diagram cannot be drawn. The most critical factor is the duration because on a new project the duration for certain activities may be difficult to estimate, hence the network diagram may be far from actual. Another limitation of network diagrams is when a shift of resource occurs. When the network diagram encounters re-allocation of resources such as employees being transfered from one acvtiviy to another, the activity completion time may be changed because of stoppage or other relevant reasons and the plan of the project may be disrupted. A network diagram may consist of parallel paths with the same durations. This is considered to be a problem within such diagram because project teams may find it diffuclt to chooose the most critical activities, hence create uncertainty on which path will be the critical path within the project. This may also cause the project teams to disagree as one team may choose one path to be critical and the another team may choose the other path to be the critical path.